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øðððž\V!   4  !  FH– pn1' f   ð0e‚˜²ƒ0e„˜²…‡ˆ‰¿ ô€‚ƒ„†A‡Áˆ‰Š‹ŒŽ•–—Á˜™š›œ@¿ÀÁÂÿÿÿÄÅAÆÁÇÈÉÊË5%ÌÍÎÏÁÐÑÒÓÔÕÖ×ÿËËË8c8c     ?€‚ƒœ1„…ðù†‡÷¿ÀÁÂdÃÄÅÆÇÈÉÊ0uËÐÌ0íìÿÍ@T‰Î€Ï€ÿÿÐyÿÑ2Ò NÓPÃÔÕ'Öp”×°<ÿÿØÙ'Úp”ÿ@Aš)BCD|ŸE?„…†‡ˆŠ ñ™™ÿÿ3@ñ÷ð8ó€ó€Ðhÿ ¿?O ʚ;9yc8ʚ;úgþý4KdKdì 0Ú üÿÿ¬üÿÿpûppû°<ý4!d!d® 0LÞ4¿<ý4dddd® 0LÞ4¿<ý4BdBd® 0LÞ4¿úgþý4=d=dì 0Ú^ùÿÿÖÿÿÿpû@ pûpˆvŠº___PPT10‹àÖ˜·D‹[SOes New RomanT©T©x–x: 0x–Ö†·DTimes New RomanT©T©x–x: 0x–Ö ÀÀ³(¯±Šfº___PPT9‹H®@¯¬(?Ù Ú%OÙ Ú=ðÏróŸšIThe Entrepreneurs of a Task Force --Chinese Human Smuggling Organizations¡*JIcAªI Ÿš»Sheldon Zhang, Ph.D. Department of Sociology San Diego State University 5500 Campanile Drive San Diego, CA 92182-4423 Tel: (619) 594-5448; Fax: (619) 594-1325 Email: szhang@mail.sdsu.edu ¡ Œ(Œcª*Š   òó° 0ߊºóŸ NIllegal Chinese Immigration The History¡*('c C ª' Ÿ `Chinese immigration to North America about 150 years ago Trans-Mississippi railroad expansion demand for coolies The Gold Rush Labor demand for farming, mining, laundering, and cooking Promotions from trans-Pacific steamship companies Political turmoil, famine, limited land at home. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 the first American immigration legislation to bar a particular group of people based on their race; and beginning of imposition of limitations on the number and characteristics of those the U.S. chose to admit. Illegal immigration began slot racket or paper son involvement of doc vendors and Tongs; 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Border crossing at Canada and Mexico.¡p9pP2äpP2”pP29cäc“ccª± ó9(Ÿš(Contemporary Illegal Chinese Immigration¡*)(c C ª( Ÿ ÞPopulation migration often a result of some disruptions to social equilibrium or old livelihood. Illegal Chinese immigration started in mid 1980s and caught the nation s attention mostly when the Golden Venture ran aground in New York s Long Island in 1993. Limited immigration quota has led to development of illegal channels in response to market demand. Economic growth, greater commercial exchanges, easier travel between countries, and the proliferation of telecommunication devices have provided a global environment conducive to population mobility and hence increased market opportunities for human trafficking. ¡TppZ2Ácc›ccªo óŸšExtent of the Problem ¡*c C ª ŸšòThe sky is falling! Most can only speculate the extent of Chinese human smuggling. Reliable data are hard to come by. Figures quoted in the media or government reports vary between 50,000 to 100,000 annually. American officials claim that the Chinese smuggling rings have connections in 51 countries that are either part of the transportation web or are involved in manufacturing fraudulent travel documents, or both. More conservative estimates put the figure around 20,000 to 30,000 per year. ¡2ópZ2Òc!cªÒ !ó Ÿš*Little Research on Chinese Human Smuggling¡,+*c c Ÿš!Only two systematic studies thus far. A 1993 survey of 300 illegal Chinese immigrants in New York City (by Chin and Kelly) was the only study involving systematic primary data collection from the perspective of the smugglees. The study was funded by the National Science Foundation. One other study focused on the perspective of human smugglers in 1999 (by Zhang and Chin); a total of 130 snakeheads were interviewed. The study was founded by the National Institute of Justice. Rest are based on sporadic personal interviews and observations.¡@"pP#cccª*Ø   A ó+Ÿš9Presumptions of Chinese Human Smuggling Organizations (1)¡:: Ÿš3U.S. Law enforcement agencies generally believe that organized crime is behind most smuggling activities. Official policies reflect two common assumptions: First, elaborate international networks exist to facilitate the transport of Chinese nationals via various transit points and many people of prominent backgrounds including high ranking government officials are involved in the process; and Second, Chinese human smugglers are connected with traditional crime organizations such as Hong Kong-based triads, U.S.-based tongs, and Taiwan-based crime groups. ¡ŒpP#ñpP ¥pZ Z›ccñc¥c  $ª3 ó,Ÿš9Presumptions of Chinese Human Smuggling Organizations (2)¡:: ŸšÞFor years, the Interpol held the same view. In one of its early publications in the 1990s, Interpol cited Sun Yi On as one major player in transnational human smuggling operations, and Hong Kong as a major transit point. ¡(ß`#ÞcªÞ ó Ÿš!Recent Development and Trends (1)¡,"!c c Ÿ pFew fishing trawlers are used, reflecting decreased demand; and landings are likely at peripheral locations, such as Virgin Islands and Mariana Islands, and islands off Canadian or Mexican coasts. Containers are used, making interception on high seas almost impossible. The use of air route is increased many smugglers are able to arrange  legitimate business, tourist visas or marriages with U.S. Citizens, or photo substitutions. Others fly into Canada, Mexico, or simply by way of international transfers at a U.S. Airport. Collaboration with Mexican smugglers.¡V9pZ2ÅccIc* c ª8Å  I * óŸš!Recent Development and Trends (2)¡,"!c c ŸšÅImmigrants come from a wider areas of China--Wenzhou, Shenyang and Dalian. Increase in illegal immigrants of better socio-economic background, such as employees of government agencies or state owned businesses. Significant disparity exits in the smuggling fees charged per person with the lowest in northeastern China (approx. $30k) and highest in southern China, particularly in Fuzhou area (approx. $65k). Extensive use of counterfeit documents. ¡BÆ0Z2ÖcÅc+cªÅ ó@.Ÿš&The Dutch Problem/The American Problem¡'' ŸšØThe Dutch Problem: Transit country/destination country Multiple sending countries More diverse ethnic enclaves The American Problem: More than 90% of illegal immigrants come from one country. Destination country only¡\\T\Tó&ŸšThe Typical Human Smuggler¡$  ŸšóMale; Marginally educated (usually with a high school education or less); Married; In his 30s or 40s; Self-employed, whose income does not depend on salaries; Engaged in the human smuggling business on a part-time basis or sporadically; Well connected in his social network; Dealing with his smuggling partners on a one-on-one basis; Making money for the service he provides to the smuggling operation, with little or no control over how other members of the operation go about their tasks. ¡ôPôó!ŸšEntering the Business¡ Ÿ No special qualifications nor skills are  a frontier enterprise that anyone can join. Individuals in a smuggling organization often belong to a family or a close social circle. Simple motivations to make money, to help out relatives and friends, or a combination of both. The key to entering this business is a combination of proper connections, opportunities, and the entrepreneurial spirit. ¡.pP2‹acª ó Ÿš3Human Smuggling Organizational Characteristics (1)¡*43c C ª3 Ÿ ˜Chinese human smuggling is essentially a business of guanxi-- all prerequisites derive from contacts with friends and relatives. A human smuggling organization is a business arrangement involving only those with valuable resources to contribute. There is no clear vertical differentiation in smuggling organizations. Despite the lack of a hierarchical order or the absence of a  god father, most smuggling activities are surprisingly smooth and uneventful.¡<Í5c ccª*5  ’ ó2#Ÿš2Human Smuggling Organizational Characteristics (2)¡*32c C ª2 ŸšüSmuggling tasks appear to be carried out solely based on a shared commitment to the eventual profit rather than out of deference to any hierarchy or organizational needs. Division of labor in smuggling operations is highly evolved with many specific role imperatives: recruiters, transporters, guides and crew members, document vendors, corrupt officials, enforcers, and debt collectors. This level of differentiation most likely result from safety and profit concerns, since most transactions are dyadic. ¡ný c ccjcycCªü ó Ÿš.Characteristics of the Smuggling Business (1) ¡*/.c C ª. ŸšâHuman smuggling is found to be casual and haphazard in its business formation, irregular in its planning and execution, and uncertain in its outcomes. The manner of how an operation is carried out largely reflect the personality and work habits of those involved. Most transactions are made through verbal agreements. All snakeheads appear to develop their own niche in the business--some specialize in fraudulent marriages, while others arrange business delegations to the U.S. ¡.ã`2âccªã óŸš*Characteristics of Smuggling Business (2) ¡*+*cCª* Ÿ ŠViolence is rare within or between smugglers. Snakeheads strategies to protect themselves ethnic/linguistic shield, dyadic business relationships, legitimate storefront, underground banking, and mobile telecommunications. Systematic corruption and bribery are essential in Chinese alien smuggling. However, corruption methods vary tremendously depending on the type of services desired. The need to bribe and corrupt is not always embraced equally among smugglers.¡Ô0Z(ÔcªÔ óŸš)Characteristics of Smuggling Business (3)¡**)cCª) Ÿš†Most snakeheads form temporary alliances for specific operations. Partnerships are formed as quickly as they are dissolved once their purposes expired. No evidence of long term planning is found. Human smuggling as a business appear open to all with appropriate connections, courage, and opportunities. The task-force orientation appears to make smuggling organizations highly adaptable to market constraints. It increases efficiency, reduces exposure to risk, and maximizes profits. Despite its lucrative profits, the smuggling business has shown no sign of moving towards monopoly or market consolidation, as most other OC will over time. ¡B‡0P(1c¶c cª$1 ¶  ó.ŸšThe Missing Link (1)¡ ŸšÐOrganized crime vs. crime that is organized. The connection between human smuggling and traditional Chinese crime groups (e.g., triads and tongs) has long been speculated by the media and law enforcement agencies. Factors support this speculation: international network, organizational structure, and financial backup. The historical influence of the Italian Mafia model; and definitional problems for law enforcement policy making if no enemies are identified. ¡.Ñ0P-Gÿ3þ€ó3$ŸšThe Missing Link (2)¡ ŸšDecades of research, no researchers have thus far produced convincing evidence to link any of the traditional Chinese crime groups to the human smuggling business. Instead, Chinese human smugglers have turned out to be mostly ordinary citizens whose familial networks and fortuitous social contacts with resourceful individuals have led them to a profitable trade in shipping human cargoes around the world. Members of traditional Chinese crime groups are found to be involved in human smuggling activities; but mostly on their own. ¡P £#ó#  ó4%ŸšThe Missing Link (3)¡ Ÿ The role of traditional Chinese crime groups in human smuggling is probably limited and mostly as a collection agent or for contract enforcement purposes. Most snakeheads made efforts not to entangle with any street gangs or other crime groups in the Chinese community. An old Chinese saying It is easy to invite gods to your house, but hard to ask them to leave. Many snakeheads also thought that the smuggling trade must be related to organized crime groups; but they were surprised to find out later that they were wrong. ¡l›s ›r#]¢ # ó:)ŸšThe Chinese Mafia¡ Ÿ ÀThe law enforcement community tends to view all various Chinese crime groups as part of the  Chinese Mafia or  Triads. The term  Chinese Mafia or  Triads obscures the historical, cultural, social, and economic conditions and antecedents that give rise to various Chinese crime groups. Although there are consistent cultural and transnational characteristics across Chinese crime groups, it is perhaps still the best to examine them according to their geographical locations.¡:á0Z!#¿#ó;*ŸšHong Kong-based Triads¡(#  Ÿ BThe word  triad means the unity of three essential elements of existence--heaven, earth, and humanity. Triads stemmed from patriotic secret societies formed three centuries ago to fight against the Qing dynasty. Triad groups are believed to control most illegal enterprises as well as many legitimate businesses in Hong Kong, with about 160,000 members belonging to some 50 factions. Triad membership provides job opportunities, protection, and social support a powerful attraction to the powerless, the uneducated, and the illegal immigrants ¡:"0Zg#¹#ó<+ŸšTaiwan-based Organized Gangs ¡(#  ŸšŠThe emergence of criminal organizations in Taiwan can be traced back to the 1930s, the period following China's recovery of Taiwan from Japan. Many of these gangs originally emerged as a self-protection group to fend off other street gangs, but gradually developed into powerful criminal organizations. Crime groups in Taiwan were once mainly involved in operating or protecting illegal gambling dens and brothels, collecting debts, extorting protection money from business owners, and street violence. Since the mid-1980s, these crime groups have become active in drug trafficking, arms trafficking, collusive bidding for government projects, and other sophisticated crimes ¡X§0ZŽ#h#  ­#ó=,ŸšU.S.-Based Tongs ¡# Ÿ fTongs in the United States were first established in San Francisco in the 1850s following the first wave of Chinese immigration. The word  tong simply means  hall or  gathering place . Rival tongs were soon drawn into street battles known as the  tong wars. The tongs, like the family and district associations, provided many needed services, such as job referrals and housing assistance, to immigrants who could not otherwise obtain the help they needed. The tongs also acted as power brokers mediating individual and group conflicts within the community. ¡H40Z#+#  ó>-ŸšU.S.-Based Street Gangs¡# Ÿ âThe first Chinese street gang, the Continentals, was formed in 1961 by native-born Chinese high school students; their primary objective was self-protection. Subsequently came the White Eagles, Black Eagles, Ghost Shadows, and Flying Dragons. Chinese gangs at first were mostly martial arts clubs headed by masters of martial arts who were tong members. When these youth gangs began to  shake down merchants and gamblers who were themselves tong members, the tongs decided to hire gang members as their street soldiers to protect themselves from robbery and extortion and to solidify their position within the community. ¡r0Zr#ó5&Ÿš%The Structural Deficiency Perspective¡*&%# # ŸštIt is no accident that traditional Chinese crime syndicates have not been widely implicated in smuggling cases. Traditional triad organizations are ill equipped to deal with the challenges of the emerging criminal opportunities. The market conditions and operational requirements of human smuggling are vastly different from those of the entrenched triad societies or other established Chinese crime groups, such as protection-extortion, gambling, loan sharking, and prostitution. Their lack of involvement in transnational human smuggling activities is caused by the deficiencies inherent in their organizational structure. ¡:u0Zå#Ž#ó6'Ÿš)Structural and Organizational Differences¡**)# # ŸšžContinuity as an Organizational Objective Preservation of Conventional Stake Market Democratization in Transnational Criminal Enterprises Individual Networking and Group Identity Factors hindering involvement of traditional OC groups in transnational human trafficking businesses: Lack of a turf Uncertain market conditions Unstable clientele Unfit environment for business consolidation or monopoly Reputation problems in recruitment ¡v· gš ·#gw###ó$ŸšQuestions That Remain ¡(#  Ÿ 0Most snakeheads try to avoid the  dark society. Claim of connections with triad societies is often used as a scare tactic. A few subjects claimed to work for their criminal organizations in providing boat escorting and payment collection services. Some snakeheads employed gangsters to solve payment problems. It makes sense that once inside the Chinese enclaves, it would be difficult for anyone newcomers to escape the shadows of local gangsters. It is always possible that there are parallel smuggling markets where entrepreneurs and the triad societies each exploit their own advantages. Methodological limitations in empirical studies (sources of data). ¡T™0Z#~cHccD c ª,~ H Dó Ÿš0Policy Implications (If the Theory is Correct.) ¡L1c c c C ª0 Ÿ 8Stop searching for the big fish. There are no  god fathers. Their organizational and operational characteristics are vastly different from those of traditional triad societies. Even defining  the big snakehead is somewhat problematic. No one seems to have any idea where  big snakeheads are home-based. Focus on disrupting networks of service providers. Because of their secretive and dyadic transactions, smuggling rings are highly vulnerable to membership change. 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Gangs&The Structural Deficiency Perspective*Structural and Organizational DifferencesQuestions That Remain 1Policy Implications (If the Theory is Correct.) 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